1. 大家帮我翻译下，请整句翻译，是论文的，无限感激
Abstract:
内容摘要
We know that the world exists in all commercial banks non-performing loans,
which of course includes Citibank, HSBC Bank and other advanced world.
我们知道，世界上的所有商业银行都存在不良贷款，这当然包括花旗银行、汇丰银行等世界先进银行。
Non-performing loans by banks operating money and credit in this particular financial institution has some of the inevitable consequences.
不良贷款是银行这个经营货币信用的特殊金融机构在经营中必然有的后果。China's state-owned commercial banks non-performing loans, reform of the banking system has become an important factor,
我国国有商业银行的不良贷款问题，已成为影响银行体系改革的一个重要因素，
accession to the WTO, the high rate of non-performing loans of state-owned banks as of equal competition with the West Bank of the heavy burden,
入世后，居高不下的不良贷款率成为影响我国国有银行与西方银行平等竞争的沉重包袱，
but also affect the state-owned banks and the International integration of a "bottleneck."
也是影响国有银行和国际接轨的一个“瓶颈”。
This paper focuses on non-performing loans of state-owned commercial banks, the causes and preventive measures put forward some superficial view.
本文集中对国有商业银行不良贷款的成因和防范措施提出了一些粗浅看法。
Key words: commercial banks, non-performing loans, causes, prevention,
关键词：商业银行、不良贷款、成因、防范
2. 商业银行不良资产成因
我国国有商业银行不良资产形成原因分析
1.外部原因
（1）国有企业预算约束的软化。首先，在企业登记注册开始就存在预算约束软化的问题。长期以来国家创办企业没有资本金注入或注入严重的不足。而且大多数国有企业缺乏资本金补偿机制，随着企业的发展，资本金比重越来越低。在我国实行不同项目差别利率的条件下，那些取得国家重点项目的国有企业就可以得到国家优惠贷款，使预算约束软化。而这些国有企业又以重点项目为名拖延、抵赖和逃废银行贷款，银行也没有办法。其次，在经营过程中国有企业受到各个方面的干预，无法成为独立的法人，从而使得预算约束软化。主要表现为产权主体缺位、企业承担的社会保障责任过多、受到的政府干预过大和过多地负担了体制转轨时期的改革成本。
（2）企业资本充足率严重不足。银企之间有千丝万缕的联系，不良资产的债权人国有银行和债务人国有企业都是“国有”的。国家可以指令国有银行延期收款或追加贷款，致使效益不好的企业债务越滚越大。这时的企业主要靠信贷资金运营，这就在事实上造成了企业资本金的严重不足，同时造成国有银行的信贷资金长期沉淀，从而形成大量的不良资产。
（3）金融监管不力。由于监管体制缺陷和经验不足等原因，在相当长的一段时间内，中国人民银行侧重于金融机构的发展和金融市场的培育，而在金融监管方面的力度则不够。成立不久的银行业监督管理委员会也存在着只注重合规性的监管，不注重风险监管的倾向。
（4）法律制度的不健全。法律制度的不健全也是不良资产形成的重要原因。它主要体现在：法律不健全，使得作为社会经济活动重要组成部分的银行业务活动缺乏必要的法律依据：“宜粗不宜细”的立法指导思想，使得已有的法律规定无法具体实施；银行与企业间的大量业务活动依照政策办事，而政策与法律相矛盾，损害了法律的权威，为不良资产的形成埋下伏笔。
2.内部原因
（1）国有商业银行在经营管理上认识不足。长期以来商业银行没有树立起风险和效益意识，没有把银行看作自负盈亏的实体。对已经形成的不良资产认识不足，对一些负债累累的国有企业仍然给予贷款支持。对于某些企业利用改制、改组等机会逃废银行债务，没有依法保护自己的权益，有效地阻止不良资产的发生。
（2）国有商业银行的贷款管理制度不健全。国有商业银行信贷经营管理体制不尽合理，资金与规模脱节，信贷人员素质低，不利于风险防范。国有商业银行的管理体制中缺乏一套有效的风险预警系统，短期贷款的长期化，增加了银行贷款回收的风险。
（3）信贷投向缺乏科学定位国有商业银行在选择贷款客户方面缺乏细致的市场调研，信贷投向缺乏前瞻性、主动性，导致一方面对市场前景好、业绩优良、守信用企业的投放力度不够，影响银行的经营效益。另一方面又给业绩不良、没有发展前景的企业注入了资金，最终无法收回而形成不良资产。
（4）审贷分离不彻底。贷款的发放部门与评审部门在分工上是各有侧重的，既互相协作，又相互制约。贷款发放部门主要是拓展客户并对项目进行初评；审查部门则对贷款进行后续评审决策。但长期以来，银行审贷合一，缺乏必要的内部制约机制。在审贷合一的情况下，政府指令授信使得执行畅通无阻，人情贷款，工作失误与偏差屡见不鲜，极易造成银行不良贷款。
（5）国有商业银行没有成为真正的独立法人。缺乏真正的经营自主权，在贷款问题上不能自主，在地方政府行政干预下造成大量贷款死滞。
3.体制原因
（1）体制改革对不良资产形成的影响。体制的问题没有得到根本的解决。二十多年的改革进程使得收入向个人倾斜，但是我国资本市场仍然欠发达，企业所需资金难以靠直接融资来取得，这样就形成了一批几乎完全靠贷款创办和经营的国有企业，而绝大多数企业经营业绩欠佳，从而造成银行的不良资产。
（2）国有企业过低的固定资产折旧率对不良资产形成的影响。国有企业固定资产折旧率偏低，而且多数企业还未足额提取，这些过低的固定资产折旧率还被国家以各种形式全部或部分收缴，成为政府预算。自“拨改贷”以后，企业要扩大再生产只好靠向银行借款来实现，随着国有企业在“七五”、“八五”期间的大规模改造，多数企业变成了高负债经营，这就增加了其归还贷款的难度，从而加剧了国有商业银行不良资产的形成。
4.制度原因
政府部门违背经济规律，直接干预银行和国有企业的经营活动，这些正式的和非正式的经济制度，对于银行不良资产的产生和积累起到了推波助澜的作用。国家政策的变动加大了投资的风险，经济体制改革不到位，经济运行忽冷忽热，投资决策随意性大，投资结构难以改善，投资效益低下，最终导致银行资产的损失。
3. 急求一篇关于"银行信用风险管理"的外文文献
这个能用吗?也是文献呢
Interim Measures on Information Disclosure of Commercial Banks
Order No.6 of the People's Bank of China
May 15, 2002
Chapter I General Provisions
Article 1 These rules are formulated on the basis of "Law on the People's bank of China of the People's Republic of China" and "Commercial Banking Law of the People's Bank of China", which aim to strengthen market discipline of commercial banks, standardize information disclosure of commercial banks, effectively safeguard legitimate interests of depositors and other stakeholders and promote safe, sound and efficient operation of commercial banks.
Article 2 These rules are to be applied to commercial banks that are established legally within the territory of the People's Republic of China, including domestic commercial banks, wholly foreign funded banks, joint venture banks and branches of foreign banks.
Article 3 Commercial banks should disclose information according to these rules, which are the minimum requirements for commercial banks' information disclosure. While abiding by these rules, commercial banks can disclose more information than what has been required by these rules at their own discretion.
In addition to these rules, listed commercial banks should also conform to relevant information disclosure rules published by regulatory body of the securities instry.
Article 4 Information disclosure of commercial banks should be proceeded consistent with laws and regulations, the uniform domestic accounting rules and relevant rules of the PBC.
Article 5 Commercial banks should disclose information in a standardized fashion, while ensuring authenticity, accuracy, integrity and comparability.
Article 6 Annual financial statements disclosed by commercial banks should be subject to auditing by accounting firms that are certified to be engaged in finance-related auditing.
Article 7 The People's Bank of China is to supervise commercial banks' information disclosure according to relevant laws and regulations.
Chapter II Information to be Disclosed
Article 8 Commercial banks should disclose financial statements, and information on risk management, corporate governance and big events of the year according to these rules.
Article 9 Commercial banks' financial statements should include accounting report, annex and notes to this report and description of financial position.
Article 10 Accounting report disclosed by commercial banks should include balance sheet, statement of income (profit and loss account), statement of owner's equity and other additional charts.
Article 11 Commercial banks should indicate inconsistence between the basis of preparation and the basic preconditions of accounting in their notes to the accounting report.
Article 12 Commercial banks should explain in their notes to the accounting report the important policy of accounting and accounting estimates, including: Accounting standards, accounting year, reporting currency, accounting basis and valuation principles; Type and scope of loans; Accounting rules for investment; Scope and method of provisions against asset losses; Principle and method of income recognition; Valuation method for financial derivatives; Conversion method for foreign currency business and accounting report; Preparation method for consolidated accounting report; Valuation and depreciation method for fixed assets; Valuation method and amortization policy for intangible assets; Amortization policy for long-term deferred expenses; Accounting practice for income tax.
Article 13 Commercial banks should indicate in their notes to the accounting report crucial changes of accounting policy and estimates, contingent items and post-balance sheet items, transfer and sale of important assets.
Article 14 Commercial banks should indicate in their annex and notes to the accounting report the total volume of related party transactions and major related party transactions. Major related party transactions refer to those with trading volume exceeding 30 million yuan or 1% of total net assets of the commercial bank.
Article 15 Commercial banks should indicate in their notes to the accounting report detailed breakdown of key categories in the accounting report, including:
(1) Due from banks by the breakdown of domestic and overseas markets.
(2) Interbank lending by the breakdown of domestic and overseas markets.
(3) Outstanding balance of loans at the beginning and the end of the accounting year by the breakdown of credibility loans, committed loans, collateralized loans and pledged loans.
(4) Non-performing loans at the beginning and end of the accounting year resulted from the risk-based loan classification.
(5) Provisions for loan losses at the beginning and the end of the accounting year, new provisions, returned provisions and write-offs in the accounting year. General provisions, specific provisions and special provisions should be disclosed separately.
(6) Outstanding balance and changes of interest receivables.
(7) Investment at the beginning and the end of the accounting year by instruments.
(8) Interbank borrowing in domestic and overseas markets.
(9) Calculation, outstanding balance and changes of interest payables.
(10) Year-end outstanding balance and other details of off-balance sheet categories, including bank acceptance bills, external guarantees, letters of guarantee for financing purposes, letters of guarantee for non-financing purposes, loan commitments, letters of credit (spot), letters of credit (forward), financial futures, financial options, etc.
(11) Other key categories.
Article 16 Commercial banks should disclose in their notes to the accounting report status of capital adequacy, including total value of risk assets, amount and structure of net capital, core capital adequacy ratio and capital adequacy ratio.
Article 17 Commercial banks should disclose auditing report provided by the appointed accounting firms.
Article 18 Description of financial position should cover the general performance of the bank, generation and distribution of profit and other events that have substantial impact on financial position and performance of the bank.
Article 19 Commercial banks should disclose following risks and risk management details:
(1) Credit risk. Commercial banks should disclose status of credit risk management, credit exposure, credit quality and earnings, including business operations that generate credit risks, policy of credit risk management and control, organizational structure and division of labor in credit risk management, procere and methods of classification of asset risks, distribution and concentration of credit risks, maturity analysis of over-e loans, restructuring of loans and return of assets.
(2) Liquidity risk. Commercial banks should disclose relevant parameters that can represent their status of liquidity, analyze factors affecting liquidity and indicate their strategy of liquidity management.
(3) Market risk. Commercial banks should disclose risks brought by changes of interest rates and exchange rate on the market, analyzing impacts of such changes on profitability and financial positions of the bank and indicating their strategy of market risk management.
(4) Operation risk. Commercial banks should disclose risks brought by flaws and mistakes of internal proceres, staff and system or by external shocks and indicate the integrity, rationality and effectiveness of their internal control mechanism.
(5) Other risks. Other risks that may bring severe negative impact to the bank.
Article 20 Commercial banks should disclose following information on corporate governance:
(1) Shareholders' meeting ring the year.
(2) Members of the board of directors and its work performance.
(3) Members of the board of supervisors and its work performance.
(4) Members of the senior management and their profiles.
(5) Layout of branches and function departments.
Article 21 Chronicle of events disclosed by commercial banks in the year should at least include the following contents:
(1) Names of the ten biggest shareholders and changes ring the year.
(2) Increase or decrease of registered capital, splitting up and merger.
(3) Other important information that is necessary for the general public to know.
Article 22 Information of foreign bank branches is to be collected and disclosed by the primary reporting branch.
Foreign bank branches don't need to disclose information that is only mandated and required for disclosure by institutions with legal person status.
Foreign bank branches should translate into Chinese and disclose the summary of information disclosed by their head offices.
Article 23 Commercial banks need not disclose information of unimportant categories. However, if the omission or misreporting of certain categories or information may change or affect the assessment or judge of the information users, commercial banks should regarded the categories as key information categories and disclose them.
Chapter III Management of Information Disclosure
Article 24 Commercial banks should prepare in Chinese their annual reports with all the information to be disclosed and publish them within 4 month after the end of each accounting year. If they are not able to disclose such information on time e to special factors, they should apply to the People's Bank of China for delay of disclosure at least 15 days in advance.
Article 25 Commercial banks should submit their annual reports to the People's Bank of China prior to disclosure.
Article 26 Commercial banks should make sure that their shareholders and stakeholders could obtain the annual reports on a timely basis.
Commercial banks should put their annual reports in their major operation venue, so as to ensure such reports are readily available for the general public to read and check. The PBC encourage commercial banks to disclose main contents of their annual reports to the public through media.
Article 27 Boards of directors in commercial banks are responsible for the information disclosure. If there is no board of directors in the bank, the president (head) of the bank should assume such a responsibility.
Boards of directors and presidents (heads) of commercial banks should ensure the authenticity, accuracy and integrity of the disclosed information and take legal responsibility for their commitments.
Article 28 Commercial banks and their involved staff that provide financial statements with false information or concealing important facts should be punished according to the " Rules on Punishment of Financial Irregularities".
Accounting firms and involved staff that provide false auditing report should be punished according to the "Interim Measures on Finance-related Auditing Business by Accounting Firms".
Chapter IV Supplementary Provisions
Article 29 Commercial banks with total assets below RMB 1 billion or with total deposits below RMB 500 million are exempted from the compulsory information disclosure. However, the People's Bank of China encourages such commercial banks to disclose information according to these rules.
Article 30 The People's Bank of China is responsible for the interpretation of these rules.
Article 31 These rules shall enter into force as of the date of promulgation and are to be applied to all commercial banks except city commercial banks.
City commercial banks should adopt these rules graally from January 1, 2003 to January 1, 2006.
中国人民银行令[2002]第6号
2002年5月15日
第一章 总 则
第一条 为加强商业银行的市场约束，规范商业银行的信息披露行为，有效维护存款人和相关利益人的合法权益，促进商业银行安全、稳健、高效运行，依据《中华人民共和国中国人民银行法》、《中华人民共和国商业银行法》等法律法规，制定本办法。
第二条 本办法适用于在中华人民共和国境内依法设立的商业银行，包括中资商业银行、外资独资银行、中外合资银行、外国银行分行。
第三条 商业银行应按照本办法规定披露信息。本办法规定为商业银行信息披露的最低要求。商业银行可在遵守本办法规定基础上自行决定披露更多信息。
上市商业银行除应遵守本办法规定披露信息外，还应遵守证券监督管理机关有关信息披露的规定。
第四条 商业银行披露信息应当遵守法律法规、国家统一的会计制度和中国人民银行的有关规定。
第五条 商业银行应遵循真实性、准确性、完整性和可比性的原则，规范地披露信息。
第六条 商业银行披露的年度财务会计报告须经获准从事金融相关审计业务的会计师事务所审计。
第七条 中国人民银行根据有关法律法规对商业银行的信息披露进行监督。
第二章 信息披露的内容
第八条 商业银行应按照本办法规定披露财务会计报告、各类风险管理状况、公司治理、年度重大事项等信息。
第九条 商业银行财务会计报告由会计报表、会计报表附注和财务情况说明书组成。
第十条 商业银行披露的会计报表应包括资产负债表、利润表（损益表）、所有者权益变动表及其他有关附表。
第十一条 商业银行应在会计报表附注中说明会计报表编制基础不符合会计核算基本前提的情况。
第十二条 商业银行应在会计报表附注中说明本行的重要会计政策和会计估计，包括：会计报表编制所依据的会计准则、会计年度、记账本位币、记账基础和计价原则；贷款的种类和范围；投资核算方法；计提各项资产减值准备的范围和方法；收入确认原则和方法；衍生金融工具的计价方法；外币业务和报表折算方法；合并会计报表的编制方法；固定资产计价和折旧方法；无形资产计价及摊销政策；长期待摊费用的摊销政策；所得税的会计处理方法等。
第十三条 商业银行应在会计报表附注中说明重要会计政策和会计估计的变更；或有事项和资产负债表日后事项；重要资产转让及其出售。
第十四条 商业银行应在会计报表附注中披露关联方交易的总量及重大关联方交易的情况。
重大关联方交易是指交易金额在3000万元以上或占商业银行净资产总额1%以上的关联方交易。
第十五条 商业银行应在会计报表附注中说明会计报表中重要项目的明细资料，包括：
（一） 按存放境内、境外同业披露存放同业款项；
（二） 按拆放境内、境外同业披露拆放同业款项;
（三） 按信用贷款、保证贷款、抵押贷款、质押贷款分别披露贷款的期初数、期末数；
（四） 按贷款风险分类的结果披露不良贷款的期初数、期末数；
（五） 贷款损失准备的期初数、本期计提数、本期转回数、本期核销数、期末数；一般准备、专项准备和特种准备应分别披露；
（六） 应收利息余额及变动情况；
（七） 按种类披露投资的期初数、期末数；
（八） 按境内、境外同业披露同业拆入款项；
（九） 应付利息计提方法、余额及变动情况；
（十） 银行承兑汇票、对外担保、融资保函、非融资保函、贷款承诺、开出即期信用证、开出远期信用证、金融期货、金融期权等表外项目，包括上述项目的年末余额及其他具体情况；
（十一） 其他重要项目。
第十六条 商业银行应在会计报表附注中披露资本充足状况，包括风险资产总额、资本净额的数量和结构、核心资本充足率、资本充足率。
第十七条 商业银行应披露会计师事务所出具的审计报告。
第十八条 财务情况说明书应当对本行经营的基本情况、利润实现和分配情况以及对本行财务状况、经营成果有重大影响的其他事项进行说明。
第十九条 商业银行应披露下列各类风险和风险管理情况：
（一） 信用风险状况。商业银行应披露信用风险管理、信用风险暴露、信贷质量和收益的情况，包括产生信用风险的业务活动、信用风险管理和控制政策、信用风险管理的组织结构和职责划分、资产风险分类的程序和方法、信用风险分布情况、信用风险集中程度、逾期贷款的账龄分析、贷款重组、资产收益率等情况。
（二） 流动性风险状况。商业银行应披露能反映其流动性状况的有关指标，分析影响流动性的因素，说明本行流动性管理策略。
（三） 市场风险状况。商业银行应披露因市场汇率、利率变动而产生的风险，分析汇率、利率的变化对银行盈利能力和财务状况的影响，说明本行的市场风险管理策略。
（四） 操作风险状况。商业银行应披露由于内部程序、人员、系统的不完善或失误，或外部事件造成的风险，并对本行内部控制制度的完整性、合理性和有效性作出说明。
（五） 其他风险状况。其他可能对本行造成严重不利影响的风险因素。
第二十条 商业银行应披露下列公司治理信息：
（一） 年度内召开股东大会情况；
（二） 董事会的构成及其工作情况；
（三） 监事会的构成及其工作情况；
（四） 高级管理层成员构成及其基本情况；
（五） 银行部门与分支机构设置情况。
第二十一条 商业银行披露的本行年度重要事项，至少应包括下列内容：
（一） 最大十名股东名称及报告期内变动情况；
（二） 增加或减少注册资本、分立合并事项；
（三） 其他有必要让公众了解的重要信息。
第二十二条 外国银行分行的信息由主报告行汇总后披露。
外国银行分行无须披露本办法规定的仅适用于法人机构的信息。
外国银行分行应将其总行所披露信息摘要译成中文后披露。
第二十三条 商业银行无须披露非关键性项目。但若遗漏或误报某个项目或信息会改变或影响信息使用者的评估或判断时，商业银行应将该项目视为关键性项目予以披露。
第三章 信息披露的管理
第二十四条 商业银行应将信息披露的内容以中文编制成年度报告，于每个会计年度终了后的四个月内披露。因特殊原因不能按时披露的，应至少提前十五日向中国人民银行申请延迟。
第二十五条 商业银行应将年度报告在公布前报送中国人民银行。
第二十六条 商业银行应确保股东及相关利益人能及时获取年度报告。
商业银行应将年度报告置放在商业银行的主要营业场所，确保公众能方便、及时地查阅。中国人民银行鼓励商业银行通过媒体向公众披露年度报告的主要信息。
第二十七条 商业银行董事会负责本行的信息披露。未设立董事会的，由行长（单位主要负责人）负责。
商业银行的董事会、行长（单位主要负责人）应当保证所披露的信息真实、准确、完整，并就其保证承担相应的法律责任。
第二十八条 对在信息披露中提供虚假的或者隐瞒重要事实的财务会计报告的商业银行及有关责任人员，按照《金融违法行为处罚办法》予以处理。
对出具虚假审计报告的会计师事务所及有关责任人员，按照《会计师事务所从事金融相关审计业务暂行办法》予以处理。
第四章 附 则
第二十九条 资产总额低于10亿元人民币或存款余额低于5亿元人民币的商业银行，可免于披露信息。中国人民银行鼓励此类商业银行按照本办法规定披露信息。
第三十条 本办法由中国人民银行负责解释。
第三十一条 本办法自公布之日起在除城市商业银行以外的商业银行范围内施行。
城市商业银行自2003年1月1日起到2006年1月1日分步施行本办法。
4. 关于商业银行信用风险管理的英文文章 两篇
Interim Measures on Information Disclosure of Commercial Banks
Order No.6 of the People's Bank of China
May 15, 2002
Chapter I General Provisions
Article 1 These rules are formulated on the basis of "Law on the People's bank of China of the People's Republic of China" and "Commercial Banking Law of the People's Bank of China", which aim to strengthen market discipline of commercial banks, standardize information disclosure of commercial banks, effectively safeguard legitimate interests of depositors and other stakeholders and promote safe, sound and efficient operation of commercial banks.
Article 2 These rules are to be applied to commercial banks that are established legally within the territory of the People's Republic of China, including domestic commercial banks, wholly foreign funded banks, joint venture banks and branches of foreign banks.
Article 3 Commercial banks should disclose information according to these rules, which are the minimum requirements for commercial banks' information disclosure. While abiding by these rules, commercial banks can disclose more information than what has been required by these rules at their own discretion.
In addition to these rules, listed commercial banks should also conform to relevant information disclosure rules published by regulatory body of the securities instry.
Article 4 Information disclosure of commercial banks should be proceeded consistent with laws and regulations, the uniform domestic accounting rules and relevant rules of the PBC.
Article 5 Commercial banks should disclose information in a standardized fashion, while ensuring authenticity, accuracy, integrity and comparability.
Article 6 Annual financial statements disclosed by commercial banks should be subject to auditing by accounting firms that are certified to be engaged in finance-related auditing.
Article 7 The People's Bank of China is to supervise commercial banks' information disclosure according to relevant laws and regulations.
Chapter II Information to be Disclosed
Article 8 Commercial banks should disclose financial statements, and information on risk management, corporate governance and big events of the year according to these rules.
Article 9 Commercial banks' financial statements should include accounting report, annex and notes to this report and description of financial position.
Article 10 Accounting report disclosed by commercial banks should include balance sheet, statement of income (profit and loss account), statement of owner's equity and other additional charts.
Article 11 Commercial banks should indicate inconsistence between the basis of preparation and the basic preconditions of accounting in their notes to the accounting report.
Article 12 Commercial banks should explain in their notes to the accounting report the important policy of accounting and accounting estimates, including: Accounting standards, accounting year, reporting currency, accounting basis and valuation principles; Type and scope of loans; Accounting rules for investment; Scope and method of provisions against asset losses; Principle and method of income recognition; Valuation method for financial derivatives; Conversion method for foreign currency business and accounting report; Preparation method for consolidated accounting report; Valuation and depreciation method for fixed assets; Valuation method and amortization policy for intangible assets; Amortization policy for long-term deferred expenses; Accounting practice for income tax.
Article 13 Commercial banks should indicate in their notes to the accounting report crucial changes of accounting policy and estimates, contingent items and post-balance sheet items, transfer and sale of important assets.
Article 14 Commercial banks should indicate in their annex and notes to the accounting report the total volume of related party transactions and major related party transactions. Major related party transactions refer to those with trading volume exceeding 30 million yuan or 1% of total net assets of the commercial bank.
Article 15 Commercial banks should indicate in their notes to the accounting report detailed breakdown of key categories in the accounting report, including:
(1) Due from banks by the breakdown of domestic and overseas markets.
(2) Interbank lending by the breakdown of domestic and overseas markets.
(3) Outstanding balance of loans at the beginning and the end of the accounting year by the breakdown of credibility loans, committed loans, collateralized loans and pledged loans.
(4) Non-performing loans at the beginning and end of the accounting year resulted from the risk-based loan classification.
(5) Provisions for loan losses at the beginning and the end of the accounting year, new provisions, returned provisions and write-offs in the accounting year. General provisions, specific provisions and special provisions should be disclosed separately.
(6) Outstanding balance and changes of interest receivables.
(7) Investment at the beginning and the end of the accounting year by instruments.
(8) Interbank borrowing in domestic and overseas markets.
(9) Calculation, outstanding balance and changes of interest payables.
(10) Year-end outstanding balance and other details of off-balance sheet categories, including bank acceptance bills, external guarantees, letters of guarantee for financing purposes, letters of guarantee for non-financing purposes, loan commitments, letters of credit (spot), letters of credit (forward), financial futures, financial options, etc.
(11) Other key categories.
Article 16 Commercial banks should disclose in their notes to the accounting report status of capital adequacy, including total value of risk assets, amount and structure of net capital, core capital adequacy ratio and capital adequacy ratio.
Article 17 Commercial banks should disclose auditing report provided by the appointed accounting firms.
Article 18 Description of financial position should cover the general performance of the bank, generation and distribution of profit and other events that have substantial impact on financial position and performance of the bank.
Article 19 Commercial banks should disclose following risks and risk management details:
(1) Credit risk. Commercial banks should disclose status of credit risk management, credit exposure, credit quality and earnings, including business operations that generate credit risks, policy of credit risk management and control, organizational structure and division of labor in credit risk management, procere and methods of classification of asset risks, distribution and concentration of credit risks, maturity analysis of over-e loans, restructuring of loans and return of assets.
(2) Liquidity risk. Commercial banks should disclose relevant parameters that can represent their status of liquidity, analyze factors affecting liquidity and indicate their strategy of liquidity management.
(3) Market risk. Commercial banks should disclose risks brought by changes of interest rates and exchange rate on the market, analyzing impacts of such changes on profitability and financial positions of the bank and indicating their strategy of market risk management.
(4) Operation risk. Commercial banks should disclose risks brought by flaws and mistakes of internal proceres, staff and system or by external shocks and indicate the integrity, rationality and effectiveness of their internal control mechanism.
(5) Other risks. Other risks that may bring severe negative impact to the bank.
Article 20 Commercial banks should disclose following information on corporate governance:
(1) Shareholders' meeting ring the year.
(2) Members of the board of directors and its work performance.
(3) Members of the board of supervisors and its work performance.
(4) Members of the senior management and their profiles.
(5) Layout of branches and function departments.
Article 21 Chronicle of events disclosed by commercial banks in the year should at least include the following contents:
(1) Names of the ten biggest shareholders and changes ring the year.
(2) Increase or decrease of registered capital, splitting up and merger.
(3) Other important information that is necessary for the general public to know.
Article 22 Information of foreign bank branches is to be collected and disclosed by the primary reporting branch.
Foreign bank branches don't need to disclose information that is only mandated and required for disclosure by institutions with legal person status.
Foreign bank branches should translate into Chinese and disclose the summary of information disclosed by their head offices.
Article 23 Commercial banks need not disclose information of unimportant categories. However, if the omission or misreporting of certain categories or information may change or affect the assessment or judge of the information users, commercial banks should regarded the categories as key information categories and disclose them.
Chapter III Management of Information Disclosure
Article 24 Commercial banks should prepare in Chinese their annual reports with all the information to be disclosed and publish them within 4 month after the end of each accounting year. If they are not able to disclose such information on time e to special factors, they should apply to the People's Bank of China for delay of disclosure at least 15 days in advance.
Article 25 Commercial banks should submit their annual reports to the People's Bank of China prior to disclosure.
Article 26 Commercial banks should make sure that their shareholders and stakeholders could obtain the annual reports on a timely basis.
Commercial banks should put their annual reports in their major operation venue, so as to ensure such reports are readily available for the general public to read and check. The PBC encourage commercial banks to disclose main contents of their annual reports to the public through media.
Article 27 Boards of directors in commercial banks are responsible for the information disclosure. If there is no board of directors in the bank, the president (head) of the bank should assume such a responsibility.
Boards of directors and presidents (heads) of commercial banks should ensure the authenticity, accuracy and integrity of the disclosed information and take legal responsibility for their commitments.
Article 28 Commercial banks and their involved staff that provide financial statements with false information or concealing important facts should be punished according to the " Rules on Punishment of Financial Irregularities".
Accounting firms and involved staff that provide false auditing report should be punished according to the "Interim Measures on Finance-related Auditing Business by Accounting Firms".
Chapter IV Supplementary Provisions
Article 29 Commercial banks with total assets below RMB 1 billion or with total deposits below RMB 500 million are exempted from the compulsory information disclosure. However, the People's Bank of China encourages such commercial banks to disclose information according to these rules.
Article 30 The People's Bank of China is responsible for the interpretation of these rules.
Article 31 These rules shall enter into force as of the date of promulgation and are to be applied to all commercial banks except city commercial banks.
City commercial banks should adopt these rules graally from January 1, 2003 to January 1, 2006.
中国人民银行令[2002]第6号
2002年5月15日
第一章 总 则
第一条 为加强商业银行的市场约束，规范商业银行的信息披露行为，有效维护存款人和相关利益人的合法权益，促进商业银行安全、稳健、高效运行，依据《中华人民共和国中国人民银行法》、《中华人民共和国商业银行法》等法律法规，制定本办法。
第二条 本办法适用于在中华人民共和国境内依法设立的商业银行，包括中资商业银行、外资独资银行、中外合资银行、外国银行分行。
第三条 商业银行应按照本办法规定披露信息。本办法规定为商业银行信息披露的最低要求。商业银行可在遵守本办法规定基础上自行决定披露更多信息。
上市商业银行除应遵守本办法规定披露信息外，还应遵守证券监督管理机关有关信息披露的规定。
第四条 商业银行披露信息应当遵守法律法规、国家统一的会计制度和中国人民银行的有关规定。
第五条 商业银行应遵循真实性、准确性、完整性和可比性的原则，规范地披露信息。
第六条 商业银行披露的年度财务会计报告须经获准从事金融相关审计业务的会计师事务所审计。
第七条 中国人民银行根据有关法律法规对商业银行的信息披露进行监督。
第二章 信息披露的内容
第八条 商业银行应按照本办法规定披露财务会计报告、各类风险管理状况、公司治理、年度重大事项等信息。
第九条 商业银行财务会计报告由会计报表、会计报表附注和财务情况说明书组成。
第十条 商业银行披露的会计报表应包括资产负债表、利润表（损益表）、所有者权益变动表及其他有关附表。
第十一条 商业银行应在会计报表附注中说明会计报表编制基础不符合会计核算基本前提的情况。
第十二条 商业银行应在会计报表附注中说明本行的重要会计政策和会计估计，包括：会计报表编制所依据的会计准则、会计年度、记账本位币、记账基础和计价原则；贷款的种类和范围；投资核算方法；计提各项资产减值准备的范围和方法；收入确认原则和方法；衍生金融工具的计价方法；外币业务和报表折算方法；合并会计报表的编制方法；固定资产计价和折旧方法；无形资产计价及摊销政策；长期待摊费用的摊销政策；所得税的会计处理方法等。
第十三条 商业银行应在会计报表附注中说明重要会计政策和会计估计的变更；或有事项和资产负债表日后事项；重要资产转让及其出售。
第十四条 商业银行应在会计报表附注中披露关联方交易的总量及重大关联方交易的情况。
重大关联方交易是指交易金额在3000万元以上或占商业银行净资产总额1%以上的关联方交易。
第十五条 商业银行应在会计报表附注中说明会计报表中重要项目的明细资料，包括：
（一） 按存放境内、境外同业披露存放同业款项；
（二） 按拆放境内、境外同业披露拆放同业款项;
（三） 按信用贷款、保证贷款、抵押贷款、质押贷款分别披露贷款的期初数、期末数；
（四） 按贷款风险分类的结果披露不良贷款的期初数、期末数；
（五） 贷款损失准备的期初数、本期计提数、本期转回数、本期核销数、期末数；一般准备、专项准备和特种准备应分别披露；
（六） 应收利息余额及变动情况；
（七） 按种类披露投资的期初数、期末数；
（八） 按境内、境外同业披露同业拆入款项；
（九） 应付利息计提方法、余额及变动情况；
（十） 银行承兑汇票、对外担保、融资保函、非融资保函、贷款承诺、开出即期信用证、开出远期信用证、金融期货、金融期权等表外项目，包括上述项目的年末余额及其他具体情况；
（十一） 其他重要项目。
第十六条 商业银行应在会计报表附注中披露资本充足状况，包括风险资产总额、资本净额的数量和结构、核心资本充足率、资本充足率。
第十七条 商业银行应披露会计师事务所出具的审计报告。
第十八条 财务情况说明书应当对本行经营的基本情况、利润实现和分配情况以及对本行财务状况、经营成果有重大影响的其他事项进行说明。
第十九条 商业银行应披露下列各类风险和风险管理情况：
（一） 信用风险状况。商业银行应披露信用风险管理、信用风险暴露、信贷质量和收益的情况，包括产生信用风险的业务活动、信用风险管理和控制政策、信用风险管理的组织结构和职责划分、资产风险分类的程序和方法、信用风险分布情况、信用风险集中程度、逾期贷款的账龄分析、贷款重组、资产收益率等情况。
（二） 流动性风险状况。商业银行应披露能反映其流动性状况的有关指标，分析影响流动性的因素，说明本行流动性管理策略。
（三） 市场风险状况。商业银行应披露因市场汇率、利率变动而产生的风险，分析汇率、利率的变化对银行盈利能力和财务状况的影响，说明本行的市场风险管理策略。
（四） 操作风险状况。商业银行应披露由于内部程序、人员、系统的不完善或失误，或外部事件造成的风险，并对本行内部控制制度的完整性、合理性和有效性作出说明。
（五） 其他风险状况。其他可能对本行造成严重不利影响的风险因素。
第二十条 商业银行应披露下列公司治理信息：
（一） 年度内召开股东大会情况；
（二） 董事会的构成及其工作情况；
（三） 监事会的构成及其工作情况；
（四） 高级管理层成员构成及其基本情况；
（五） 银行部门与分支机构设置情况。
第二十一条 商业银行披露的本行年度重要事项，至少应包括下列内容：
（一） 最大十名股东名称及报告期内变动情况；
（二） 增加或减少注册资本、分立合并事项；
（三） 其他有必要让公众了解的重要信息。
第二十二条 外国银行分行的信息由主报告行汇总后披露。
外国银行分行无须披露本办法规定的仅适用于法人机构的信息。
外国银行分行应将其总行所披露信息摘要译成中文后披露。
第二十三条 商业银行无须披露非关键性项目。但若遗漏或误报某个项目或信息会改变或影响信息使用者的评估或判断时，商业银行应将该项目视为关键性项目予以披露。
第三章 信息披露的管理
第二十四条 商业银行应将信息披露的内容以中文编制成年度报告，于每个会计年度终了后的四个月内披露。因特殊原因不能按时披露的，应至少提前十五日向中国人民银行申请延迟。
第二十五条 商业银行应将年度报告在公布前报送中国人民银行。
第二十六条 商业银行应确保股东及相关利益人能及时获取年度报告。
商业银行应将年度报告置放在商业银行的主要营业场所，确保公众能方便、及时地查阅。中国人民银行鼓励商业银行通过媒体向公众披露年度报告的主要信息。
第二十七条 商业银行董事会负责本行的信息披露。未设立董事会的，由行长（单位主要负责人）负责。
商业银行的董事会、行长（单位主要负责人）应当保证所披露的信息真实、准确、完整，并就其保证承担相应的法律责任。
第二十八条 对在信息披露中提供虚假的或者隐瞒重要事实的财务会计报告的商业银行及有关责任人员，按照《金融违法行为处罚办法》予以处理。
对出具虚假审计报告的会计师事务所及有关责任人员，按照《会计师事务所从事金融相关审计业务暂行办法》予以处理。
第四章 附 则
第二十九条 资产总额低于10亿元人民币或存款余额低于5亿元人民币的商业银行，可免于披露信息。中国人民银行鼓励此类商业银行按照本办法规定披露信息。
第三十条 本办法由中国人民银行负责解释。
第三十一条 本办法自公布之日起在除城市商业银行以外的商业银行范围内施行。
城市商业银行自2003年1月1日起到2006年1月1日分步施行本办法。
只有一篇
5. 急求商业银行不良贷款问题方面的英文文献 最好是pdf格式的 用于毕业论文文献翻译
我知道真像了 我自己再找了
6. 地方商业银行不良贷款风险成因
地方商业银行不良贷款的风险主要形成原因就是地方在放贷的时候，它的审核是不那么严格的。还有好多是靠人情关系来做的，总之就造成了最后不良贷款的形成。
7. 我国商业银行不良贷款形成原因及解决途径——以农行为例 谁能帮帮我
一.我国国有银行不良贷款的产生原因
银行不良资产产生的原因除了部分国有企业不能适应市场经济的要求，经营和财务管理遇到困难以外还可以分为外部经济环境和商业银行内部的因素。
第一.外部经济环境为不良信贷资产的产生提供了赖以生存的条件。
1.市场机制的不健全扭曲了政府、企业、民众的经济行为。在计划经济向市场经济转型的过程中，地方政府或多或少地充当了同国有商业银行信贷资金的调解人，过多干预银行事务，从而变相误导了银行的经营作为，扭曲了部分贷款的合理投和向。同时由于我国市场经济基础薄弱，市场机制不够健全，政府、企业和民众对商业银行经营行为商业化、贷款市场化、交易的诚信原则不能很好理解和贯彻，从而形成的经济、金融、法律、社会和民事环境，银行的权益受到伤害，不良贷款日积月累，积重难返。
2.一些国有企业资本金严重不足，银行贷款被用作铺底资金。企业在生产经营过程中需要占用的资金是不等量的，其最低额是企业必须经常占用，在需在资金最少的时候也不会空闲出来，这种最低限额的铺底资金，应该使用资本金，而不宜使用银行贷款，使用了贷款就无法归还。改革开放以来，财政安排的经济建设资金绝大部分用于基本建设方面，老企业需要增加的流动资金几乎完全依靠向银行贷款，甚至于有的新企业基本上是使用银行贷款建成的 。这就使得一些国有企业负债过高，大量银行贷款无法到期收回。
3.信用观念的扭曲。由于企业拖欠贷款的现象存在多年，而且大多数拖欠者都没有受到利益的损害，有些甚至还得到了好处，天长日久就使得人们的信用观念转变、扭曲、颠倒，加之少数地方政府和主管部门维护社会信用不力，默许一些国有企业把自己的损失转嫁给国有商业银行，而国有商业银行在一定程度上也存在不正确的观念，对贷款能否及时收回注意不够，对到期的贷款催收的工作也抓得不紧，这些都严重损害了银行的利益，致使银行的不良贷款加重。
第二.国有商业银行内部因素对不良贷款的增加和膨胀起到了推波助澜的作用。
1.贷款管理机制落后，自我约束力不够。近十几年来，国有商业银行的业务发展突飞猛进，但不容忽视的是，在贷款管理上存在着重数量规模，轻质量效益的粗放经营倾向，重贷轻管，重放轻收，跟踪不到位，约束力不够，特别是违规操作比较多。可以说贷款管理机制的落后、管理环节上的薄弱是不良贷款产生的一个根本原因。
2.贷款风险监测机制不健全。认为信贷管理重物不重人，缺乏对企业法人或经营主管的品质、素质和个性等方面的综合考虑：信贷风险监测制度不完备，限于风险贷款的统计工作，缺乏贷前、 贷中和贷后环节的风险评估，不能做到及时掌握贷款企业的资产、负债、盈亏情况的变化：预警机制没有建立，很大程度上不能有效监测信贷风险。
3. 防范和化解不良信贷资产，对国有商业银行来说是一项艰巨而又复杂的系统工程，必须眼睛向内，找准突破口，多管齐下，标本兼治，更新观念，把不良信贷资产提升到一种可挖掘利用资源的高度加以认识。
二.国有商业银行不良贷款的存在带来的后果
2006年外资银行在中国正式享受国民待遇，国有商业银行将面临外资银行的激烈竞争。如果不良贷款比例不降下来的话，银行的经营效益首先会受到严重的影响。不良贷款的贷款利息难以收回，银行还须支付储户存款的利息，另一方面，银行大量的资产沉淀在不良贷款上，银行资产的流动性大大地降低，影响银行的经营效益。随着银行商业化进程加快。银行的政府色彩将会越来越淡，银行要凭自身在社会上的信誉，靠银行的经营效益和服务质量来蠃得客户，如果不良贷款的比例高而效益下降，银行就会难以生存，将会在和外资银行的竞争中处于不利地位。
1.不良贷款的存在不利于银行业及国民经济的持续健康发展。银行发放贷款的资金主要来自存款，不良资产过多，许多贷款无法收回或不能按期收回，就有无法支付到期存款、发生存款支付危机的可能。我国商业银行现在存款支付没有发生问题是因为有多年来形成的良好信誉，加之有国家作为其强大后盾，能吸收到大量新的存款，可以利用新存款支付老存款。如果情况发生变化，某家银行的新存款减少，老存款的支付就可能出现困难。如果国有商业银行出现支付困难，则我国银行甚至于整个国民经济就可以出现动荡。
2.不良贷款的存在会助长企业互相拖欠贷款，使社会信用恶化。企业相互拖欠贷款和国有企业拖欠国有银行贷款，是当前社会信用恶化的两种主要表现，而且它们的根源是相通的、互为因果的。企业相互拖欠，销货企业不能及时收回销货款，归还银行到期贷款，银行的不良资产就会增加。反之，银行不良资产增加，等于接受了被拖欠企业转嫁过来的损失，减轻对企业催收贷款的促进和推动力度，等于银行放纵和助长了企业相互拖欠贷款。因此，只有采取坚决措施解决企业拖欠银行贷款问题，才能促进和推动企业间清理贷款拖欠，使整个社会信用状况得到了改善。
3.不良贷款的存在损害了银行和经济的发展。经济要加快发展，必须要有相应的信贷支持。如果银行的不良资产越来越多，则银行不仅要用于贷款的资金减少，而且不敢放手发放信贷，从而对经济发展造成不利的影响。银行不良资产的增加，对银行业务的发展危害也很大。一些国有企业信用状况不好，主要表现为对国有企业和国有银行不守信用，而对外资银行却是守信的。加入WTO后，我国同外资银行的竞争加剧，外资银行必然千方百计地同我国商业银行争业务。如不采取有效措施，整顿国有银行同国有企业的借贷关系，彻底消除企业拖欠银行贷款的 现象，则我国商业银行将会在竞争中处于不利地位。
4.不良贷款的存在使银行改革无法进一步深入。我国商业银行改革的方向是四家国有商业银行逐步实现股份制，已实行股份制并具备上市条件的其他商业银行逐步实行股票上市。实行股份制和股票上市需要增加透明度，公开资产负债和财务状况，达到有关标准。如果不能把不良资产降下来，就达不到上市标准，就不可能上市，即使上市了，股票的出售也将成为问题，这就会推迟我国银行业的改革进程。
加入世界贸易组织后，银行业的竞争更加激烈。为了迎接竞争，把我国商业银行建设成世界一流的银行，就必须采取坚决措施，解决商业银行特别是国有商业银行不良资产过多的问题，如不尽快解决，将带来一系列严重后果。
三.运作盘活不良贷款的方式方法
要充分应用市场和法律手段，采取多种形式消化不良资产，通过落实债权，建立不良资产垡回收责任制，依法处置贷款抵押品及垡企业资产，出售债权或更换债务人，资产证券化，减免贷款本息及核销等方式，盘活不良资产。
1.银行自身成立专门机构或指定专人催收，加大对不良资产的冲销力度。银行应成立专门机构，调集专人催收，对主动想办法归还拖欠贷款的企业，应积极给予其所需的新的贷款的支持，以鼓励形成良好的社会信用风气。对已无收回可能的不良资产，用各种方法冲销，适当提取呆帐准备金，增大冲销力度。
2.国有企业可实行股份制改革。国有企业银实行股份制的改革，建立适应市场经济需要的企业经营机制，公开发行股票在，用所得资金冲销不良资产，偿还银行贷款，还可以使企业增加资本金，降低负债率。
3.在企业、银行界和全社会开展遵守信用的学习和教育活动。应 采取有效措施，使破坏信用的企业借不到款，打击逃债赖债，破坏信用的行为。对情节严重的逃债赖债行为，依法办理，并形成声势，给意欲破坏信用者以震慑。
4.国有商业银行应逐步实行股份制。国有商业银行应变成真正经营货币的企业，实行自主经营，不再承担政策性贷款的业务，实行政企分开，建立健全股东监督制度，以提高新增贷款的质量。
5.对不良贷款进行分层处理，对现有的不良资产不能简单粗放地处理，而要细化分类，对不同类型、不同等级的不良资产在采取措施时要因地制宜，找准突破口，
6.调整信贷结构，对不良资产增加审查环节。对不良贷款单纯地围追堵截，终究是亡羊补牢的措施，应增大对新增贷款客户的营销、评估、预警、审批、贷后管理。回收监测、中间业务服务等各个环节的管理，确保注入的贷款是安全、有效的。
7.建立激励约束机制，约束人的行为。权力和责任永远是相伴相随的，构建讲效果和节约的市场经济的贷款营销理念，责任到人，逐级考核，合理奖惩。建立和完善信贷经营管理体制，形成审批。经营。风险控制相互制约，权、责、利相结合，分级管理。分级经营的新型信贷经营管理体制，实行审批个人负责制，使权责统一。
四.借鉴美国如何处理银行不良资产的方法
我国商业银行大量不良资产的存大大增加了我国的金融风险，因此探索处理商业银行不良资产的有效方法，对于尽快处理我国商业银行的不良资产具有非常重大的现实意义。
1.美国政府机构处理商业银行不良资产采取的措施。面对日益深化的银行业危机，美国政府部门采取了包括收购和接管、存款清偿以及营业银行救援三种方式。美国政府依靠公开拍卖和暗盘竞标的方式 ，将其接管的大批破产商业银行的资产(贷款和不动产)出售给了民间企业，并与民间投资者共同组成合资公司，美国政府作为有限公司的合资者，以其所持有的破产金融机构的资产作为股本投入，并负责安排融资：民间投资者则作为一般合资人注入现金股本，并提供资产管理服务。另外美国政府还通过签订资产管理合同和资产证券化的方式，成功地处置了商业银行的大量不良资产。
2.美国商业银行处理不良资产的措施。在银行业危机中，美国一些大银行内部也产生了大量不良资产问题，它们依靠自身的力量解决了这些不良资产，摆脱了困境。
提取坏帐准备金。坏帐准备金的足额提取增强了银行消除贷款损失和抵御风险的能力。
调整债权结构。根据贷款出现的问题的原因和程度，银行与债权人重新协议商业银行贷款条件，或减免利息，或延长贷款期限，或追加担保和资产抵押，以尽量增加项目的潜在价值，提高商业银行的优先清偿地位。
通过法律手段。商业银行通过法律手段，取得贷款抵押物的所有权，并以资产拍卖收入偿付贷款损失。
好银行加坏银行模式。将母银行的不良资产按公平市价连同已经分配好的储备一并转让给一家单独成立的子公司，母银行由于转让了不良资产而成为资产优良、资产充足的好银行，而子公司由于接受了不良资产而成为坏银行。
3.美国处理不良资产的经验对我国的启示。首先是政府机构的主导作用。美国机构从全国性和制度性的角度出发，在处理商业银行不良资产的过程中发挥了主导作用，加快了处理商业银行不良资产的步伐，大大减弱了银行倒闭给社会经济带来的动荡。改善了银行的经营环境，增强了银行处理不良资产的能力。
其次是建立了完备的法律体系，为迅速处理商业银行不良资产提供了法律上的支持和保障。
再次是及时地解决。面以严重的银行业危机，美国政府采取措施，及时对商业银行进行解决，处理得及时，效果明显，还创造出新的处理措施使不良资产得到很好的解决。
这些富于创新的措施和手段为商业银行不良资产的处理提供了新的思路和市场，在追求不良资产处理速度的同时，又能最大限度地节约成本，对于新的措施可以对我国处理不良资产的措施带来一些新的方向和解决途径。